Socialism in Europe
1870 - 1914
The Paris commune
In March 1871, following the lifting of the siege of Paris and the armistice in January, there was an insurrection. The government declared that rent in arrears and debts must be honoured, and this plunged middle-class families into financial ruin. On the 18th March, Thiers, the head of the provisional government, ordered the National Guard in Paris to hand over its artillery and he sent troops to enforce the order. The commune lasted for two months and ended after a siege and bitter street fighting and atrocities. The Tuilleries was burnt down.
Nonetheless, the example of the Paris commune inspired the left and revolutionaries with confidence. Marx and Engles in The Civil War in France called it “the glorious harbinger of a new society.”
Nonetheless, the example of the Paris commune inspired the left and revolutionaries with confidence. Marx and Engles in The Civil War in France called it “the glorious harbinger of a new society.”
Revolutionary theorists
Apart from Marx there were other influential revolutionary theorists
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who died in 1865, advocated the doctrine of federalism and the abolition of property and government. He claimed this would lead to the development of the best part of human nature and to the evolution of a reign of justice. He claimed that the attainment of justice would emerge as a result of a constant struggle against the violent and irrational elements in man. But Proudhon was disillusioned by the events of 1848 and had repudiated political action. Proudhon’s influence in France, however, meant that Marxism was less successful there than in other countries.
Michael Bakunin
Michael Bakunin, a Russian who died in 1876. He maintained that the landless workers of Italy, Spain and Russia were the true revolutionaries because they had nothing to lose. Industrial workers enjoy the benefits of economic progress so have a stake in capitalist society. It was Bukunin’s quarrel with Marx that led to the split of the 1st International; they argued over organisational and ideological questions.
Ferdinand Lassalle
Ferdinand Lassalle, a German, who died in 1864. Lassalle believed in the necessity of creating a strong German state under Prussian leadership. He believed that the ensuing democracy would give an organised working-class control of the state. In 1875 supporters of Lassalle united with those of Marx to form the German Social Democratic Party. Thus the spread of universal suffrage and the growth of the industrial proletariat meant that socialism was becoming a mass movement.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who died in 1865, advocated the doctrine of federalism and the abolition of property and government. He claimed this would lead to the development of the best part of human nature and to the evolution of a reign of justice. He claimed that the attainment of justice would emerge as a result of a constant struggle against the violent and irrational elements in man. But Proudhon was disillusioned by the events of 1848 and had repudiated political action. Proudhon’s influence in France, however, meant that Marxism was less successful there than in other countries.
Michael Bakunin
Michael Bakunin, a Russian who died in 1876. He maintained that the landless workers of Italy, Spain and Russia were the true revolutionaries because they had nothing to lose. Industrial workers enjoy the benefits of economic progress so have a stake in capitalist society. It was Bukunin’s quarrel with Marx that led to the split of the 1st International; they argued over organisational and ideological questions.
Ferdinand Lassalle
Ferdinand Lassalle, a German, who died in 1864. Lassalle believed in the necessity of creating a strong German state under Prussian leadership. He believed that the ensuing democracy would give an organised working-class control of the state. In 1875 supporters of Lassalle united with those of Marx to form the German Social Democratic Party. Thus the spread of universal suffrage and the growth of the industrial proletariat meant that socialism was becoming a mass movement.
The theory of international socialism
Marx believed that socialism should be an international movement. The First International (which is short for the “International Working Men’s Association”) was founded in London in 1864. It was a vehicle for the ideas of Marx. In 1871 the International came on the verge of dissolution, and in 1872 it split.
In 1889 the Second International was founded. (The First International was dissolved in 1876.) In 1900 the International Socialist Bureau was set up in Brussels, but it comprised only a secretariat for planning, for example, the international socialist congress. In 1904 the Amsterdam congress dictated that French socialist parties should unite; a decision which Jaurès obeyed. However, the international movement was not able to prevent Czech socialists separating from Germans for nationalist reasons. International socialists feared the development of nationalism. For example, the special congress of the International at Basle in 1912 emphasised the determination of the socialist movement to avoid war. The French and German governments were deeply suspicious of socialists, whom they saw as potential traitors in the event of war.
In 1889 the Second International was founded. (The First International was dissolved in 1876.) In 1900 the International Socialist Bureau was set up in Brussels, but it comprised only a secretariat for planning, for example, the international socialist congress. In 1904 the Amsterdam congress dictated that French socialist parties should unite; a decision which Jaurès obeyed. However, the international movement was not able to prevent Czech socialists separating from Germans for nationalist reasons. International socialists feared the development of nationalism. For example, the special congress of the International at Basle in 1912 emphasised the determination of the socialist movement to avoid war. The French and German governments were deeply suspicious of socialists, whom they saw as potential traitors in the event of war.
Socialism in European Countries
British socialism
There were two ways in which socialism could develop. The first of these was through organised political parties within the framework of the existing constitution. The other route was through conflict and revolution.
The constitutional development took place, for example, in Great Britain and was coupled to the development of trade unions. By 1884 in England virtually all male adults had the vote. The Liberal party was committed to reform. In 1893 there was the foundation of the Independent Labour Party by James Ker Hardie. In 1901 the British courts judged that unions were liable to pay damages to employers for losses caused by strike action; but this stimulated the formation of an alliance between unions and the Labour party. In 1900 there was the foundation of the Labour Representation Committee. Its purpose was to return working men to Parliament. Membership of this group increased as it became clear that a conservative government would not change the legislation on union activity. In 1906 the committee called itself the Labour Party. In 1889 there was a great strike in the London docks, which won for the dockers recognition of their aims, and an increase in wages. In 1910 the Labour Party increased its Parliamentary strength. But many trade unionists believed that strike action was more effective than Parliamentary representation. The British working class was pragmatic, and had little interest in ideology. They were primarily concerned with practical gains and immediate reforms.
German socialism
In 1875 the Marxist and Lassalle branches of the socialist movement united to form the Social Democratic Party. The German socialist party subscribed to Marxism. The leaders were August Bebel and William Liebknecht, who remained in touch with Marx until Marx’s death in 1883. Engles died in 1895. The late work of Engels was concerned with codifying and disseminating the work of Marx. As German industry grew so it the membership of the Social Democratic Party.
There were two ways in which socialism could develop. The first of these was through organised political parties within the framework of the existing constitution. The other route was through conflict and revolution.
The constitutional development took place, for example, in Great Britain and was coupled to the development of trade unions. By 1884 in England virtually all male adults had the vote. The Liberal party was committed to reform. In 1893 there was the foundation of the Independent Labour Party by James Ker Hardie. In 1901 the British courts judged that unions were liable to pay damages to employers for losses caused by strike action; but this stimulated the formation of an alliance between unions and the Labour party. In 1900 there was the foundation of the Labour Representation Committee. Its purpose was to return working men to Parliament. Membership of this group increased as it became clear that a conservative government would not change the legislation on union activity. In 1906 the committee called itself the Labour Party. In 1889 there was a great strike in the London docks, which won for the dockers recognition of their aims, and an increase in wages. In 1910 the Labour Party increased its Parliamentary strength. But many trade unionists believed that strike action was more effective than Parliamentary representation. The British working class was pragmatic, and had little interest in ideology. They were primarily concerned with practical gains and immediate reforms.
German socialism
In 1875 the Marxist and Lassalle branches of the socialist movement united to form the Social Democratic Party. The German socialist party subscribed to Marxism. The leaders were August Bebel and William Liebknecht, who remained in touch with Marx until Marx’s death in 1883. Engles died in 1895. The late work of Engels was concerned with codifying and disseminating the work of Marx. As German industry grew so it the membership of the Social Democratic Party.
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In 1912 the SDP became the single largest party in the Reichstag, and
one in three Germans voted for it.
Bismarck was afraid of the socialist movement. Following two unsuccessful attempts on the life of the Kaiser in 1878 he imposed severe restrictions on the political activities of the socialists. |
Table 1. The rise of the German Social Democratic Party
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